George Lichtenberger
Corporal B-257
July 8th, 1922 - September 28th, 1944
8th Princess Louise’s (New Brunswick) Hussars
Personal Information: George Lichtenberger was born in Sheffield, Pennsylvania on July 8th, 1922 to parents Joseph & Jennie Lichtenberger. He grew up in Warren, Pennsylvania, a city along the Allegheny River built on prosperous timber and oil industries. He attended and graduated from Warren High School. His father was a labourer and his mother was a housewife. His family belonged to the Roman Catholic Church, and he was the only child.[1]
In June of 1941 the United States had not yet entered the war. George was young, single and unemployed at the time. He decided that it was his calling to go to Canada to join the forces fighting overseas. He was only 18 years old and had just graduated from High School when he travelled to Toronto, Ontario to enlist. He and his schoolmate, John Pesko, enlisted together on June 13th, 1941. George was 5 foot 7 and weighed 140 pounds. He had brown hair and brown eyes and was deemed to be in good health.[2]
Military Movements: After his enlistment, he was first taken on strength by the #2 District Depot. George received training at Camp Borden and in Brantford, Ontario. He was soon transferred to the 8th Princess Louise’s (New Brunswick) Hussars unit of the 5th Canadian Armoured Regiment. Lichtenberger, along with Pesko and the other 8th Hussars embarked for England on March 21st, 1942, and disembarked March 29th. He continued his training in England until November of 1943, when the 8th Hussars would enter the Mediterranean theatre of war.The regiment embarked for Italy on November 14th 1943 and disembarked on November 22nd. George would fight with the 8th Hussars in Italy from November of 1943 to September of 1944.[3]
The Final Days: The 8th Hussars were on the Adriatic coast of Italy in 1944. They had spent the summer resting and training for the difficult tasks that lied ahead of them. August was spent breaking through the Gothic Line - the last major German defence in Italy. Most of September would be spent at Coriano Ridge.[4]
On September 28th, the 8th Hussars moved into the area of the Perth Regiment near the Rubicon River. That afternoon C squadron lost one tank on a mine while engaging a German Tiger Tank. The enemy tank took out another two tanks from C squadron and Major C. A. McEwen withdrew his troops. During this fight on the Rubicon River, C squadron destroyed one enemy Tiger Tank. The rain from the days prior had made the ground near the river soft and impassable so the squadrons remained there for the night. Once the men had regrouped it was reported that C squadron had one crew commander killed that afternoon; that was George Lichtenberger.[5]
On September 12th 1944, only 16 days before his death, George was promoted to Corporal.
He served in Canada, the United Kingdom and Italy over a total of 1204 days. He was awarded the 1939-45 Star, Italy Star, Defence Medal, War Medal and Canadian Volunteer Service Medal with Clasp.[6]
Lest We Forget: Corporal George Lichtenberger was buried on site near Cesena, reported by Captain D. P. Rowland of the Irish Regiment. On October 5th, 1945 his family received a notice that George’s body had carefully been moved to a grave site in the war cemetery where the other Canadian soldiers had been buried. Corporal George Lichtenberger now rests at Cesena British Empire War Cemetery, plot 3, row G, grave 2. George was killed at age 22 and was survived by his father Joseph Lichtenberger and his mother Jennie Lichtenberger.
[1] Military Service Files of George Lichtenberger obtained from Library & Archives Canada
[2] Military Service Files of George Lichtenberger obtained from Library & Archives Canada
[3] Military Service Files of George Lichtenberger obtained from Library & Archives Canada
[4] Douglas How, The 8th Hussars A History of the Regiment, Maritime Publishing 1964, pp. 184-295
[5] Douglas How, The 8th Hussars A History of the Regiment, Maritime Publishing 1964, pp. 184-295
[6] Military Service Files of George Lichtenberger obtained from Library & Archives Canada
Lest We Forget: Corporal George Lichtenberger was buried on site near Cesena, reported by Captain D. P. Rowland of the Irish Regiment. On October 5th, 1945 his family received a notice that George’s body had carefully been moved to a grave site in the war cemetery where the other Canadian soldiers had been buried. Corporal George Lichtenberger now rests at Cesena British Empire War Cemetery, plot 3, row G, grave 2. George was killed at age 22 and was survived by his father Joseph Lichtenberger and his mother Jennie Lichtenberger.
John Lawrence Pesko
Trooper B-258
8th New Brunswick Hussars (Princess Louise 5th Canadian Armoured Regiment
Personal Information: John Lawrence Pesko was born on the 26th September 1922 in Warren, Pennsylvania. He was raised by John Pesko and Anna Pesko with three brother and four sisters.[i] The family belonged to the Roman Catholic Church. John Worked as a grocery store clerk and a log cutter at a saw mill in Warren. He had 6 months of experience when he enlisted.[ii] John graduated from Warren High School.
John Pesko enlisted June 13th 1941 in Toronto, Ontario.[iii] He was 5 foot 8 and weighed 125 pounds and was deemed to be in good health.[iv] John had a brother who was also involved in the war, he was stationed at a naval air base in Norfolk, Virginia.
Military Movements: After John enlisted in Toronto, Ontario, he received training in Brantford and Borden, Ontario. He left Canada for England on March 21st, 1942 and disembarked March 29th. He had further training in the U.K.[v] John then got on a ship, heading to the Mediterranean on November 14th 1943 and disembarked on November 22nd 1943. John was fighting his last battle in Italy, with the Italian Campaign. Over 93 000 Canadians fought in Italy during the Second World War. More than 6000 did not return home.
The Final Days: During the Italian Campaign the Germans held the majority of the high ground. An allied attack in Italy helped distract the Germans from other fronts and convinced them to bring more men and equipment into this country and away from the west coast of France where the Atlantic Wall was located. The Hussars would see their first real action in May 1944. They would play a role in the Canadian advance through Liri Valley. The Hussars would assist in breaking the Hitler Line and help the allied forces secure the Melfa crossing.
The 1st Canadian Infantry led the effort until the river was crossed and then the 5th Canadian Armoured Division took the lead to Ceprano.[vi] They began on 24th of May; they were trying to make their way to get new positions of the Melfa River. Hussar tanks were caught under heavy fire, 'A' squadron came to the rescue taking out 3 anti-tanks. On May 26th they were advancing closer and closer, while being under light fire throughout the day.
On May 27th they reached point 107 and the remainder of the squadron was overlooking Ceprano.[vii] It had been a difficult advance with the Hussars suffering a few casualties. There were numerous troops on the west bank, but they could not engage due to not knowing where the forward troops were located. So, 'B' squadron decided to take a break. As they did so the Germans fired while the men were outside their tanks.[viii]
John Lawrence Pesko was killed while taking a break when the Germans opened fire. John died along with four other men: Clinton Groves, Alan McGarty, James O'Reilly, and Alfred Lawton. John Pesko's family was notified that he that he was killed in action.[ix]
John Pesko purchased Victory Bonds worth $150 and these were given to his mother, and he had also purchased $1500 in insurance; his parents were named as the beneficiaries. During John's time in the military he received the Defense Medal, War Medal, Italy Star, CVSM and clasp.
Lest We Forget: John Lawrence Pesko is buried at the Cassino Military Cemetery plot 5, row J, grave 4.[x] John Lawrence Pesko died at the age of 21. He was survived by his father John (age 56), mother Anna (age 55), his brothers Michael (28), Francis (18), Eugene (15) and four sisters: Mrs. Richard Yaggie (33), Katherine (31), Genevieve (26), and Marion (23). Francis was at the U.S. Naval Air Base in Norfolk, Virginia, and only Eugene and Marion lived at home with their parents at the time of John's passing.
Bibliography:
Windsor, Lee. Steel Cavalry: The 8th (New Brunswick) Hussars and the Italian Campaign. Fredericton NB: Goose Lane Editions 2011
How, Douglas. 8th Hussars. Sussex, NB: Maritime Publishing, 1964
Archival References:
Military service files of Trooper John Lawrence Pesko obtained from Library and Archives Canada
Internet Sites:
Veterans Affairs Canada, Dec. 16th 2015, https://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/memorials/canadian-virtual-war-memorial/detail/2609845
[i] Military file of trooper John Lawrence Pesko, Library and Archives, Canada
[ii] Military file of trooper John Lawrence Pesko, Library and Archives, Canada
[iii] Military file of trooper John Lawrence Pesko, Library and Archives, Canada
[iv] Military file of trooper John Lawrence Pesko, Library and Archives, Canada
[v] Military file of trooper John Lawrence Pesko, Library and Archives, Canada
[vi] Douglas How The 8th Hussars, Sussex, NB: Maritime Publishing, 1964
[vii] Military file of trooper John Lawrence Pesko, Library and Archives, Canada
[viii] Douglas How The 8th Hussars, Sussex, NB: Maritime Publishing, 1964
[ix] Military file of trooper John Lawrence Pesko, Library and Archives, Canada
[x]Veterans Affairs Canada Dec. 16th 2015, https://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/memorials/canadian-virtual-war-memorial/detail/2609845
Biography courtesy of the Lest We Forget initiative of Belleisle Regional High School located in Springfield, NB
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A reflection on June 28th, 1919: The Treaty of Versailles and how it shaped World History in the 20th Century By Makayla Cole
Introduction:
100 years ago today, countries from around the world came together in the Palace of Versailles in Paris to sign a peace treaty in order to formally end the fighting of the First World War, and to prevent another war from ever happening again. Evidently, it was the terms of this treaty that resulted in a Second World War only 20 years later and an ongoing struggle to establish an international government to achieve World peace. From World Wars and genocides, to United Nations Peacekeeping missions, find out how the Treaty of Versailles has affected countries around the World over the past 100 years, and how it shaped the both the catastrophic and innovative events of the 20th Century.
Ending WW1:
The Great War, later universally referred to as the First World War, was the first mechanized global conflict - encompassing 32 nations and becoming one of the largest and deadliest wars in History. Originating in Europe through a network of alliances - emerging powerful nations were in imperial, military and nationalistic struggle with one another for centuries. It would only take one small spark to ignite the flames of the Great War in Europe, and the rest of the world, and that spark came June 28th, 1914.
On June 28th The Archduke Franz Ferdinand, his wife Sophie and party were visiting the Balkan states that had previously been annexed by the Austro-Hungarian Empire. While visiting the Bosnian capital Sarajevo, the Archduke and his wife were assassinated by Gavrilo Principe, a member of the Serbian terrorist group, known as the Black Hand. As a result of this assassination, the Austro-Hungarian Empire declared war on Serbia, the outbreak of conflict between the two powers and other Balkan states that would be known as the July Crisis. The prolonged uprising creating a domino effect of war declarations throughout the European continent and abroad. By the end of August, Germany, Russia, France, Britain and Japan had all declared war. All of these major World powers immediately involved their international colonies and dominions.
Britain and France who had been in alliance many years prior, formed the Triple Entente with Russia. Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire and eventually Italy, would form the opposing forces known as the Triple Alliance. Smaller nations fell to either side of the conflict. The fighting in Europe began in August of 1914 and was expected to be over by Christmas. However, it was clear by December that the fighting would continue for much longer. In 1917, the third year into the war, Russia pulled it’s forces out to concentrate on a revolution at home. In the same year the United States was brought into the conflict by direct attacks, or attempted attacks initiated by Germany. This included the sinking of the American passenger ship the Lusitania, the Zimmerman telegram asking Mexico to join forces with Germany in order to attack the United States, as well as Germany declaring unrestricted submarine warfare - meaning they would attack ships belonging to any nation, whether they were involved in the war or not. Initially, American President Woodrow Wilson declared neutrality for the country and stated they would not get involved with the overseas conflict. However, given the circumstances in 1917 considering the threat to the American people, he felt they had no choice.
The fighting in Europe continued into the fall of 1918. It resulted in approximately 40 million total casualties. 20 million were deaths, half of those being military personnel and the other half, civilians. The guns fell silent at 11:00 a.m. on November 11th, 1918. On this date the armistice would be signed between the Entente and their opponent, Germany, in agreement to end all fighting on land, sea and air. This day became known as Armistice Day or as we know it in Canada - Remembrance Day. However, the Entente and Allied powers were still at war with one another until an official treaty was signed in June of 1919 to end the First World War on all terms.
100 years ago today, countries from around the world came together in the Palace of Versailles in Paris to sign a peace treaty in order to formally end the fighting of the First World War, and to prevent another war from ever happening again. Evidently, it was the terms of this treaty that resulted in a Second World War only 20 years later and an ongoing struggle to establish an international government to achieve World peace. From World Wars and genocides, to United Nations Peacekeeping missions, find out how the Treaty of Versailles has affected countries around the World over the past 100 years, and how it shaped the both the catastrophic and innovative events of the 20th Century.
Ending WW1:
The Great War, later universally referred to as the First World War, was the first mechanized global conflict - encompassing 32 nations and becoming one of the largest and deadliest wars in History. Originating in Europe through a network of alliances - emerging powerful nations were in imperial, military and nationalistic struggle with one another for centuries. It would only take one small spark to ignite the flames of the Great War in Europe, and the rest of the world, and that spark came June 28th, 1914.
On June 28th The Archduke Franz Ferdinand, his wife Sophie and party were visiting the Balkan states that had previously been annexed by the Austro-Hungarian Empire. While visiting the Bosnian capital Sarajevo, the Archduke and his wife were assassinated by Gavrilo Principe, a member of the Serbian terrorist group, known as the Black Hand. As a result of this assassination, the Austro-Hungarian Empire declared war on Serbia, the outbreak of conflict between the two powers and other Balkan states that would be known as the July Crisis. The prolonged uprising creating a domino effect of war declarations throughout the European continent and abroad. By the end of August, Germany, Russia, France, Britain and Japan had all declared war. All of these major World powers immediately involved their international colonies and dominions.
Britain and France who had been in alliance many years prior, formed the Triple Entente with Russia. Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire and eventually Italy, would form the opposing forces known as the Triple Alliance. Smaller nations fell to either side of the conflict. The fighting in Europe began in August of 1914 and was expected to be over by Christmas. However, it was clear by December that the fighting would continue for much longer. In 1917, the third year into the war, Russia pulled it’s forces out to concentrate on a revolution at home. In the same year the United States was brought into the conflict by direct attacks, or attempted attacks initiated by Germany. This included the sinking of the American passenger ship the Lusitania, the Zimmerman telegram asking Mexico to join forces with Germany in order to attack the United States, as well as Germany declaring unrestricted submarine warfare - meaning they would attack ships belonging to any nation, whether they were involved in the war or not. Initially, American President Woodrow Wilson declared neutrality for the country and stated they would not get involved with the overseas conflict. However, given the circumstances in 1917 considering the threat to the American people, he felt they had no choice.
The fighting in Europe continued into the fall of 1918. It resulted in approximately 40 million total casualties. 20 million were deaths, half of those being military personnel and the other half, civilians. The guns fell silent at 11:00 a.m. on November 11th, 1918. On this date the armistice would be signed between the Entente and their opponent, Germany, in agreement to end all fighting on land, sea and air. This day became known as Armistice Day or as we know it in Canada - Remembrance Day. However, the Entente and Allied powers were still at war with one another until an official treaty was signed in June of 1919 to end the First World War on all terms.
Photo: Universal History Archives
Opening session of the Paris Peace Conference, January, 1919.
In January of 1919 the remaining Entente powers, which became known at this time as the Big Three, organized the Paris Peace Conference. The Big Three consisted of the United States represented by President Woodrow Wilson, Britain represented by Prime Minister David Lloyd George, and France represented by Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau. Japan and Italy - as victors who had sided with the Entente at the height of the war - were also invited to attend the conference - Germany was not. The conference included diplomats from 32 countries. However, the five major victorious powers met informally 145 times to discuss and eventually implement all major decisions following the war. The Paris Peace Conference and informal meetings of the five powers ultimately resulted in the Treaty of Versailles.
Opening session of the Paris Peace Conference, January, 1919.
In January of 1919 the remaining Entente powers, which became known at this time as the Big Three, organized the Paris Peace Conference. The Big Three consisted of the United States represented by President Woodrow Wilson, Britain represented by Prime Minister David Lloyd George, and France represented by Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau. Japan and Italy - as victors who had sided with the Entente at the height of the war - were also invited to attend the conference - Germany was not. The conference included diplomats from 32 countries. However, the five major victorious powers met informally 145 times to discuss and eventually implement all major decisions following the war. The Paris Peace Conference and informal meetings of the five powers ultimately resulted in the Treaty of Versailles.
Photo: Edward N. Jackson, U.S. Army Signal Corps
From left: British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, Italian Premier Vittorio Orlando, French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau and American President Woodrow Wilson.
Canada:
As a dominion of the British empire, Canada was immediately involved in the overseas conflict when Britain declared war on Germany in 1914. The young nation mobilized the Canadian Expeditionary Force contributing over 600,000 men to the forces of the Triple Entente. They achieved great success at the Second Battle of Ypres and the Battle of Vimy Ridge, their military successes uniting them as a nation. Having thrived industrially during wartime and demonstrating their military strength on a World stage, the idea of an independent nation was on the mind of all Canadians in the wake of the war, including Canadian Prime Minister Robert Borden.
Having lost 60,000 young Canadians to the war, Prime Minister Robert Borden thought that Canada had paid the price to have independent representation at the Paris Peace Conference and on the Treaty of Versailles. At the signing of the Treaty, Borden requested a signature for Canada separate from the British Empire. British Prime Minister David Lloyd George agreed, however Canada’s signature was indented under Britain to acknowledge it’s ongoing connection to the British Empire. This was essentially the first legal document Canada would sign without Britain.
Self determination is the process by which a country determines its own statehood and forms its own allegiances and government. Asking for a separate signature from Britain in signing the Treaty of Versailles was only the first step in achieving self determination for Canada. Canada’s sovereignty was acquired in the period between the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, and that of the Statute of Westminster1 in 1931 which officially granted Canada independence. During this interwar period, Canadians distanced themselves from their British or other ancestry, and considered themselves to be solely Canadian. This atmosphere in Canada following the signing of the Treaty was more influential than any signature on a piece of paper.
14 points & the Treaty:
At the end of the First World War, President Woodrow Wilson delivered a speech outlining the Fourteen Points that he believed would settle the accounts of the war and establish peace, ensuring that another war would not ensue. Compiled by Wilson and a team of 150 American foreign-policy ministers, eight of the points were focused on territorial settlement between nations, five of the points were focused on foreign policy, and the fourteenth point was that the nations of the World should come together and create an international governing system to oversee and administer international policies, known as the League of Nations. These fourteen points would be proposed at the Paris Peace Conference by the United States in drafting the Treaty of Versailles. However, only the final point would actually be adopted.
The terms of the Armistice signed on November 11th, 1918 between the allies and Germany were intended to be implemented for 36 days, in which time Germany was to fulfill certain conditions to show its sincerity. The main concern of the Armistice for the allies was to ensure Germany would not pose a military threat to other European countries again. Under the conditions they were to turn over to the allies;
5000 guns
25,000 machine guns
3000 trench mortars
1700 airplanes
5000 motor lorries
5000 locomotives
150,000 railroad cars
In addition, they were required to withdraw 20 miles from the Rhine and leave the area a demilitarized zone. They were to restore Alsace and Lorraine to France, and the gold seized from Belgian and Russian territory to their respective countries. As discussions began between the Big Three and other allied powers, the terms were continually extended for periods of 30 days until June, 1919 when they ended by the adoption of the Treaty of Versailles.
Immediately after the war all countries began pointing fingers, and most of them, especially Britain and France, were pointing at Germany. They were devastated and wanted to seek revenge on Germany for the amount of infrastructure and the generation of their country’s youth that were lost to the war. The Treaty forced Germany to take full responsibility for the war and as a result, be held accountable for the cost.
The terms of the treaty were as follows;
I Germany was responsible for the war. (The Guilt Clause or Article 231)2
II Germany was to turn over all colonies to the Allies (mandated to France, Great Britain and Japan).
III Germany was to withdraw from Alsace and Lorrain and they would be returned to France.
IV Germany was to turn over the Fleet complete, except 30 boats to be used by Germany for customs, etc.
V An army of occupation was to be maintained in the Rhine and Rhur Valleys, the cost to be paid by Germany.
VI A plebiscite was held, so that any country could ally itself with any other country.
VII A corridor was to be established from Poland to the sea, separating Prussia from the rest of Germany.
VIII Danzig would become a free world port, controlled by the League of Nations.
IX Memel would be given to Lithuania as a sea port, the Hultschin district to Czechoslovakia, and Cession of Eupen-Malmedy to Belgium.
X Poznania, parts of East Prussia and Upper Silesia would go to Poland.
XI A ban would be placed on the union of Germany and Austria.
XII The Kaiser and other war leaders would be tried.
XIII Occupation and special status would be granted to the Saar under French control.
XV Germany’s army would be limited to 100,000 men with no conscription and they were not to re arm. The navy would be allowed six battleships, six light cruisers, twelve destroyers, twelve torpedo boats, and submarines would be forbidden.
XVI Germany would pay £6,600 billion in reparations.
As a result of the plebiscite held by Sir John Simon of Britain in 1920 the Rhur became independent and Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Lithuania, Latvia, Bessarabia (Moldova) and Finland were created or separated from Russia. Poland was formed from Russian and German provinces. Political boundaries in Europe had changed significantly, once again, and Germany was at a great loss of territory.
As a dominion of the British empire, Canada was immediately involved in the overseas conflict when Britain declared war on Germany in 1914. The young nation mobilized the Canadian Expeditionary Force contributing over 600,000 men to the forces of the Triple Entente. They achieved great success at the Second Battle of Ypres and the Battle of Vimy Ridge, their military successes uniting them as a nation. Having thrived industrially during wartime and demonstrating their military strength on a World stage, the idea of an independent nation was on the mind of all Canadians in the wake of the war, including Canadian Prime Minister Robert Borden.
Having lost 60,000 young Canadians to the war, Prime Minister Robert Borden thought that Canada had paid the price to have independent representation at the Paris Peace Conference and on the Treaty of Versailles. At the signing of the Treaty, Borden requested a signature for Canada separate from the British Empire. British Prime Minister David Lloyd George agreed, however Canada’s signature was indented under Britain to acknowledge it’s ongoing connection to the British Empire. This was essentially the first legal document Canada would sign without Britain.
Self determination is the process by which a country determines its own statehood and forms its own allegiances and government. Asking for a separate signature from Britain in signing the Treaty of Versailles was only the first step in achieving self determination for Canada. Canada’s sovereignty was acquired in the period between the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, and that of the Statute of Westminster1 in 1931 which officially granted Canada independence. During this interwar period, Canadians distanced themselves from their British or other ancestry, and considered themselves to be solely Canadian. This atmosphere in Canada following the signing of the Treaty was more influential than any signature on a piece of paper.
14 points & the Treaty:
At the end of the First World War, President Woodrow Wilson delivered a speech outlining the Fourteen Points that he believed would settle the accounts of the war and establish peace, ensuring that another war would not ensue. Compiled by Wilson and a team of 150 American foreign-policy ministers, eight of the points were focused on territorial settlement between nations, five of the points were focused on foreign policy, and the fourteenth point was that the nations of the World should come together and create an international governing system to oversee and administer international policies, known as the League of Nations. These fourteen points would be proposed at the Paris Peace Conference by the United States in drafting the Treaty of Versailles. However, only the final point would actually be adopted.
The terms of the Armistice signed on November 11th, 1918 between the allies and Germany were intended to be implemented for 36 days, in which time Germany was to fulfill certain conditions to show its sincerity. The main concern of the Armistice for the allies was to ensure Germany would not pose a military threat to other European countries again. Under the conditions they were to turn over to the allies;
5000 guns
25,000 machine guns
3000 trench mortars
1700 airplanes
5000 motor lorries
5000 locomotives
150,000 railroad cars
In addition, they were required to withdraw 20 miles from the Rhine and leave the area a demilitarized zone. They were to restore Alsace and Lorraine to France, and the gold seized from Belgian and Russian territory to their respective countries. As discussions began between the Big Three and other allied powers, the terms were continually extended for periods of 30 days until June, 1919 when they ended by the adoption of the Treaty of Versailles.
Immediately after the war all countries began pointing fingers, and most of them, especially Britain and France, were pointing at Germany. They were devastated and wanted to seek revenge on Germany for the amount of infrastructure and the generation of their country’s youth that were lost to the war. The Treaty forced Germany to take full responsibility for the war and as a result, be held accountable for the cost.
The terms of the treaty were as follows;
I Germany was responsible for the war. (The Guilt Clause or Article 231)2
II Germany was to turn over all colonies to the Allies (mandated to France, Great Britain and Japan).
III Germany was to withdraw from Alsace and Lorrain and they would be returned to France.
IV Germany was to turn over the Fleet complete, except 30 boats to be used by Germany for customs, etc.
V An army of occupation was to be maintained in the Rhine and Rhur Valleys, the cost to be paid by Germany.
VI A plebiscite was held, so that any country could ally itself with any other country.
VII A corridor was to be established from Poland to the sea, separating Prussia from the rest of Germany.
VIII Danzig would become a free world port, controlled by the League of Nations.
IX Memel would be given to Lithuania as a sea port, the Hultschin district to Czechoslovakia, and Cession of Eupen-Malmedy to Belgium.
X Poznania, parts of East Prussia and Upper Silesia would go to Poland.
XI A ban would be placed on the union of Germany and Austria.
XII The Kaiser and other war leaders would be tried.
XIII Occupation and special status would be granted to the Saar under French control.
XV Germany’s army would be limited to 100,000 men with no conscription and they were not to re arm. The navy would be allowed six battleships, six light cruisers, twelve destroyers, twelve torpedo boats, and submarines would be forbidden.
XVI Germany would pay £6,600 billion in reparations.
As a result of the plebiscite held by Sir John Simon of Britain in 1920 the Rhur became independent and Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Lithuania, Latvia, Bessarabia (Moldova) and Finland were created or separated from Russia. Poland was formed from Russian and German provinces. Political boundaries in Europe had changed significantly, once again, and Germany was at a great loss of territory.
An American news headline following the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.
After the treaty was signed, Germany stated that they felt as though they should be armed enough to protect themselves. However, as a method of guaranteeing no aggression against them, the Locarno Pact was signed, where Germany, France, Belgium, Britain and Italy were in mutual agreement to maintain peace in Western Europe. Other European powers wanted to appease Germany, as well as ensure protection for themselves in the wake of a highly destructive war. It was hoped that the forced disarmament of Germany would result in the voluntary disarmament of other nations. Germany was not the only country who considered the consequences of the Treaty of Versailles to be extremely unfair, many countries, including the United States agreed. Woodrow Wilson was aware that punishing Germany too severely could result in another war, but Britain and France ignored his warnings and actually thought the treaty could have been more severe.
One of the most important results of the treaty in the shaping of human history in the 20th century was the creation of a World Court and a League of Nations - Wilson’s Fourteenth Point. The League was intended to be the Government of the World under which all countries were to send representatives, in order to administer World affairs. A standing army was to be at the service of the League to enforce the ruling of the World Court. It was hoped that with this new setup that perpetual peace could be maintained. The League was officially established in 1920 and headquartered in Geneva. The first of many small problems quickly arose as Germany was not permitted to join.
When the Treaty of Versailles was taken back to several governments for ratification a few refused to sign, so that the strength of the League of Nations was weakened. One of the terms of the League was that no member could declare war on another without first submitting the case to the World Court. The League carried on the best that it could, with good intentions. However, it was greatly handicapped through a number of nations not belonging to the organization. American President Woodrow Wilson was the one to propose the idea of establishing a League of Nations. However, the United States was not a member. Americans did not want to be involved in European or international affairs, out of the fear of being caught up in another bloody conflict. Wilson could therefore not convince American citizens, or the senate primarily composed of members of the opposing Republican party, to join the League.
Russia was also not a member of the League, as their communist ideologies clashed with the agenda of the League of Nations. As well, Russia developed a deep hatred for the powerful Western European nations Britain and France, who had primary control over the League. Sensing a loss of power and control, the League relaxed it’s exclusive policies surrounding who was permitted to join. Germany was admitted into the League of Nations in 1926, and 15 other nations were admitted following. However, nations withdrew from the League almost as fast as they were admitted. First Italy, an original member of the League, withdrew when they attacked Ethiopia, Germany when they entered Czechoslovakia and Japan, another original member, when they invaded China. If the League of Nations could have functioned as planned with full international participation, we may have achieved peace in the 20th Century, rather than war.
Reactions to the treaty & WW2:
Many nations honestly believed that the League on Nations resulting from the Treaty of Versailles would be the only way to achieve World peace. However, the League presented challenges to nations that had their own political agendas. With plans to expand their territory to accommodate the rapidly growing population, Japan invaded North-eastern China - the region known as Manchuria, in 1931. They invaded following the Mukden incident, which was an attempt by the Japanese Military to destroy part of Japan’s South Manchuria Railway in order to blame the event on China and justify an attack. Although the explosion was unsuccessful in destroying the track, the Japanese Army accused the Chinese of the act and responded with the full invasion of Manchuria. The League of Nations took over a year to formulate a report relating to the Japanese invasion of Manchuria and did not take action. Not wanting to disturb relations with a powerful nation, Britain and France essentially allowed Japan to get away with invading China - a less powerful country. In 1933 they withdrew from the League after being censored by member countries over the invasion. However, they did not face any punitive measures and maintained close ties with Britain. Japan was a signatory of the Treaty of Versailles and an original member of the League. Their withdrawal and lack of consequences for the invasion severely weakened the authority of the League of Nations.
Germany also withdrew from the League in 1933, nine months after Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor. Germany was experiencing a major economic crisis. Their biggest problem was not having to pay reparations, but their own war debt. They had full intentions of winning the war and would have paid off their debt by having other countries pay reparations to them. In this time of crisis, the German people were deterred from the democratic Weimar republic and turned their attention to more extreme political parties. Adolf Hitler and the Nazi party promised to restore the German economy, establish jobs and regain German territory. He did fulfill some of his promises to the Germany people, but by doing so, breached many of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.
Major European powers, Britain and France, were not oblivious to Hitler’s breaching of the Treaty. However, with the fear of communism spreading from Eastern Europe, France especially wanted Germany to have a strong enough military force to prevent the Soviet Union and communism from spreading West, so they turned away when Hitler began to rebuild the German army. Having the only two remaining major powers of the League of Nations, and signatories of the Treaty turn away from their policies essentially revoked the authority of the League and allowed Germany to get away with breaching nearly every term of the treaty in the 1930’s, including no longer paying their reparations.
Blame for the economic crisis in the country was placed on German Jews by Hitler. Although it was clear the crisis was caused by war, anti-Semitism was rampant in Nazi Germany, and civilians believed Hitler’s claims. The Holocaust, the mass incarceration and extermination of Jewish peoples in Europe and one of the most devastating Genocides in human history, was carried out while the League of Nations was supposedly governing the World and maintaining peace. The Holocaust era emerged in 1933 and without international intervention, carried out for over ten years. The estimated number of those who perished is as high as 11 million. It was executed by German leader Adolf Hitler who came to power by directly violating the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Had Britain and France respected the opinion of the United States and many other nations 20 years prior and agreed on a less punitive treaty, the German government may not have retaliated with such extreme measures, and millions of lives may have been saved.
Following the events of the 1930’s many nations gave up their belief in the ability of the League of Nations to maintain peace or prevent wars from happening. World War broke out once again in Europe in 1939, almost entirely as a result of the highly punitive terms of the Treaty of Versailles. As well, the League of Nations created from the Treaty, as predicted, failed to prevent the Second World War. This war would be the deadliest conflict in World History. The Japanese invasion of China developed into the combat of the Pacific Theatre of War, and similarly the German invasion of several European countries developed into the European Theatre of War. The total death toll for the international conflict has been estimated between 70 and 85 million, devastating the population of many countries.
In 1942, at the height of the Second World War, the Big Four powers - the United States, China, Britain and the Soviet Union and a total of 26 countries met in New York City and signed the declaration of the United Nations with the common goal of defeating totalitarianism, and primarily Nazism. After the allied countries won the war, the United Nations was officially founded on October 24th, 1945. The League of Nations had been utterly unsuccessful in it’s term and it was time for the nations of the World to unite once again to restore order and peace. The League of Nations officially disbanded in 1946 and was replaced by the UN.
One of the most important results of the treaty in the shaping of human history in the 20th century was the creation of a World Court and a League of Nations - Wilson’s Fourteenth Point. The League was intended to be the Government of the World under which all countries were to send representatives, in order to administer World affairs. A standing army was to be at the service of the League to enforce the ruling of the World Court. It was hoped that with this new setup that perpetual peace could be maintained. The League was officially established in 1920 and headquartered in Geneva. The first of many small problems quickly arose as Germany was not permitted to join.
When the Treaty of Versailles was taken back to several governments for ratification a few refused to sign, so that the strength of the League of Nations was weakened. One of the terms of the League was that no member could declare war on another without first submitting the case to the World Court. The League carried on the best that it could, with good intentions. However, it was greatly handicapped through a number of nations not belonging to the organization. American President Woodrow Wilson was the one to propose the idea of establishing a League of Nations. However, the United States was not a member. Americans did not want to be involved in European or international affairs, out of the fear of being caught up in another bloody conflict. Wilson could therefore not convince American citizens, or the senate primarily composed of members of the opposing Republican party, to join the League.
Russia was also not a member of the League, as their communist ideologies clashed with the agenda of the League of Nations. As well, Russia developed a deep hatred for the powerful Western European nations Britain and France, who had primary control over the League. Sensing a loss of power and control, the League relaxed it’s exclusive policies surrounding who was permitted to join. Germany was admitted into the League of Nations in 1926, and 15 other nations were admitted following. However, nations withdrew from the League almost as fast as they were admitted. First Italy, an original member of the League, withdrew when they attacked Ethiopia, Germany when they entered Czechoslovakia and Japan, another original member, when they invaded China. If the League of Nations could have functioned as planned with full international participation, we may have achieved peace in the 20th Century, rather than war.
Reactions to the treaty & WW2:
Many nations honestly believed that the League on Nations resulting from the Treaty of Versailles would be the only way to achieve World peace. However, the League presented challenges to nations that had their own political agendas. With plans to expand their territory to accommodate the rapidly growing population, Japan invaded North-eastern China - the region known as Manchuria, in 1931. They invaded following the Mukden incident, which was an attempt by the Japanese Military to destroy part of Japan’s South Manchuria Railway in order to blame the event on China and justify an attack. Although the explosion was unsuccessful in destroying the track, the Japanese Army accused the Chinese of the act and responded with the full invasion of Manchuria. The League of Nations took over a year to formulate a report relating to the Japanese invasion of Manchuria and did not take action. Not wanting to disturb relations with a powerful nation, Britain and France essentially allowed Japan to get away with invading China - a less powerful country. In 1933 they withdrew from the League after being censored by member countries over the invasion. However, they did not face any punitive measures and maintained close ties with Britain. Japan was a signatory of the Treaty of Versailles and an original member of the League. Their withdrawal and lack of consequences for the invasion severely weakened the authority of the League of Nations.
Germany also withdrew from the League in 1933, nine months after Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor. Germany was experiencing a major economic crisis. Their biggest problem was not having to pay reparations, but their own war debt. They had full intentions of winning the war and would have paid off their debt by having other countries pay reparations to them. In this time of crisis, the German people were deterred from the democratic Weimar republic and turned their attention to more extreme political parties. Adolf Hitler and the Nazi party promised to restore the German economy, establish jobs and regain German territory. He did fulfill some of his promises to the Germany people, but by doing so, breached many of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.
Major European powers, Britain and France, were not oblivious to Hitler’s breaching of the Treaty. However, with the fear of communism spreading from Eastern Europe, France especially wanted Germany to have a strong enough military force to prevent the Soviet Union and communism from spreading West, so they turned away when Hitler began to rebuild the German army. Having the only two remaining major powers of the League of Nations, and signatories of the Treaty turn away from their policies essentially revoked the authority of the League and allowed Germany to get away with breaching nearly every term of the treaty in the 1930’s, including no longer paying their reparations.
Blame for the economic crisis in the country was placed on German Jews by Hitler. Although it was clear the crisis was caused by war, anti-Semitism was rampant in Nazi Germany, and civilians believed Hitler’s claims. The Holocaust, the mass incarceration and extermination of Jewish peoples in Europe and one of the most devastating Genocides in human history, was carried out while the League of Nations was supposedly governing the World and maintaining peace. The Holocaust era emerged in 1933 and without international intervention, carried out for over ten years. The estimated number of those who perished is as high as 11 million. It was executed by German leader Adolf Hitler who came to power by directly violating the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Had Britain and France respected the opinion of the United States and many other nations 20 years prior and agreed on a less punitive treaty, the German government may not have retaliated with such extreme measures, and millions of lives may have been saved.
Following the events of the 1930’s many nations gave up their belief in the ability of the League of Nations to maintain peace or prevent wars from happening. World War broke out once again in Europe in 1939, almost entirely as a result of the highly punitive terms of the Treaty of Versailles. As well, the League of Nations created from the Treaty, as predicted, failed to prevent the Second World War. This war would be the deadliest conflict in World History. The Japanese invasion of China developed into the combat of the Pacific Theatre of War, and similarly the German invasion of several European countries developed into the European Theatre of War. The total death toll for the international conflict has been estimated between 70 and 85 million, devastating the population of many countries.
In 1942, at the height of the Second World War, the Big Four powers - the United States, China, Britain and the Soviet Union and a total of 26 countries met in New York City and signed the declaration of the United Nations with the common goal of defeating totalitarianism, and primarily Nazism. After the allied countries won the war, the United Nations was officially founded on October 24th, 1945. The League of Nations had been utterly unsuccessful in it’s term and it was time for the nations of the World to unite once again to restore order and peace. The League of Nations officially disbanded in 1946 and was replaced by the UN.
Photo: Library of Congress
First meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, 10 January 1946.
First meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, 10 January 1946.
he UN, although more successful than the League of Nations, still had trouble controlling world conflicts. Little was done to prevent major wars and genocides like the Korean war, Iraq war, and Rwandan Genocide. The United Nations has a duty to intervene, but it can be difficult to configure when and how. In the ongoing conflict in Syria, member countries of the UN have struggled to decide whether military intervention is necessary or beneficial. Some nations are weary about the highly unsuccessful military interventions in Iraq and Afghanistan. Others, however, can not forget the horrors of genocides like the Holocaust that absolutely needed a third party to intervene and put an end to unimaginable crimes against humanity. The effectiveness of a World court and government proposed by Woodrow Wilson in 1919 is still being evaluated 100 years later, today.
Positive influence & peace:
To note some of the reputable efforts of the United Nations and other organizations originating from the Treaty of Versailles - as some of the most innovative endeavours of the 20th century resulted from the treaty as well. The United Nations had a far superior international participation and successful peacekeeping force. In comparison, at its peak, the League of Nation had a total of 58 member states, while the present-day United Nations has 193. United Nations peacekeepers hail from various member countries and work solely in the service of the UN. The first United Nations headquarters was constructed in New York City, and today the UN also has headquarters in Geneva, Vienna and Nairobi, all of these designations being declared international territory, controlled by international law.
The first United Nations Peacekeeping force was mobilized to help settle the conflict arising from the Suez Canal crisis in Egypt. The Suez crisis arose in 1956 when Egyptian President Nasser nationalized the canal. Britain, France and Israel invaded Egypt to extinguish Egyptian nationalism and to regain access to the canal for international trade. The United Nations Assembly ordered a ceasefire, and it was the idea of Canadian Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson to send UN peacekeepers to Egypt to monitor the ceasefire agreement. This first peacekeeping mission would be the model for various other peacekeeping missions in the 20th century, including during the Yugoslavian wars. Today the UN Peacekeeping force boasts around 100,000 soldiers.
Canadian self determination continued through service with the United Nations and peacekeeping missions. Canada distinguished itself culturally from Britain having their foreign policy and defense cooperation aligning more with that of the United States. During the Suez Crisis, Canadian peacekeepers was criticized for the use British uniforms and using the term “Royal” to identify Canadian Regiments deployed in Egypt. As a result, to distinguish themselves from the British troops, Canadians were issued the now famous blue beret to reinforce Canada’s role in the UN as a neutral state. The reinforcement of distinction from the Commonwealth and the desire not to be seen as an extension of Britain’s foreign policy established Canada’s new role on the world stage in conflict resolution.
Self Determination within the league of nations and the UN did not only affect Canada. For the first time some minorities were given the choice of which nation they would like to be apart of. Many of the new countries created from the Treaty had substantial ethnic minorities that wished to join neighbouring states with culture they were more akin to. The League of Nations sponsored many of these minorities with Minority Treaties, settling disputes between the countries they fell under and those where their ethnicity dominated. Unfortunately, when the power and authority began dwindling from the League in the 1930’s, most of the support for these minority groups was lost. The United Nations picked up the slack having similar geopolitical consequences follow the Second World War as they did the First [World War].
Other organizations that were formed from the Treaty of Versailles included the International Labour Organization which still exists today and has worked to advance social justice and promoting international labour standards. Over the last 100 years, June 28th, 1919 - June 28th, 2019, we have come a long way in achieving World peace. Organizations created by the United Nations in the years following the Second World War include the World Health Organization that has worked in preventing epidemics and specializing in public health measures. UNICEF, the United Nations Children Fund was originally established to provide food, shelter and healthcare to women and children affected by the war. Another organization to come out of the Second World War is the World Bank established as an international financial institution with the goal to reduce poverty. The first country to receive a World Bank loan was France, who received $250 million USD to help rebuild after the war. However, after the Marshall Plan3 began moving money into Europe, the World Bank shifted its interests to non-European countries. They worked to reduce poverty in developing countries and in 1960 established the International Development Agency to continue on the path of poverty reduction through equitability and sustainability.
The UN fosters communication between member states. Collective compromise and communication between nations has helped to settle much international strife. This has been done through the International Court of Justice established to settle international legal disputes. It has offered legal advice in budding conflicts all over the World including the Asylum Case4 between Columbia and Peru, several aerial incidents or other confrontations between the United States and the Soviet Union and North Sea Continental Shelf Cases.5 The UN’s main goal however was to prevent a WW3. It has been over 70 years and so far, they have done that.
Conclusion
The most famous and influential international treaty ever signed, the Treaty of Versailles was pivotal for History in the 20th century. Aimed to formally end the First World War and prevent another war from ensuing, the highly punitive terms of the treaty were the direct cause of a Second World War only 20 years later. Organizations formed from the Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty 100 years ago have had both successes and failures in their goal to unite nations around the World and achieve World peace. We live in a very different World in 2019, but there is still much we can learn from June 28th, 1919 to ensure the unprecedented suffering and events of the 20th century do not repeat themselves in the 21st.
If you would like to find out more about The Treaty of Versailles and its long-term effects over the 20th Century, visit us at the 8th Hussars Museum, located in the historic Sussex train station.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Footnotes
1 Statute of Westminster - a British law clarifying the powers of Canadian Parliament as well as those of other commonwealth dominions. It granted these countries legal independence in all areas they desired, and others could remain subordinate to Britain.
2 Article 231 – “The Guilt Clause” – the opening article of the reparations section of the treaty that required Germany to accept full responsibility for starting the war.
3 Marshall Plan - an American initiative to provide economic assistance to European countries struggling after the war.
4 Asylum Case - a case involving the Columbian ambassador to Peru that survived a short-lived Peruvian civil war and was granted asylum by the Columbian government but was denied safe transport out of Peru by the Peruvian government.
5 North Sea Continental Shelf Cases - a series of disputes between Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands regarding areas rich in oil and gas on the continental shelf of the North Sea.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
References:
Oziah, Ken, Treaty of Versailles: The Road to Hitler, American Military University.
Dowbiggin, Ian, Why the treaty of Versailles went so wrong, Telegraph Journal, May, 2019.
McLauchlan, C. G., Causes leading up to the present war, 1939-1940.
The National Archives Learning Centre, The Great War 1914-18, The Treaty of Versailles. http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/greatwar/g5/cs2/background.htm
World Digital Library https://www.wdl.org/en/item/11598/
Collision of Empires: Italy's Invasion of Ethiopia and its International Impact
Bailey, Thomas A., Woodrow Wilson & the Great Betrayal.
Heard, Andrew, Canadian Independence, 1990. https://www.sfu.ca/~aheard/324/Independence.html
Self-determination & new states, History of Western Civilization II, OER Services, ch.27 The Interwar Period.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/self-determination-and-new-states/
Positive influence & peace:
To note some of the reputable efforts of the United Nations and other organizations originating from the Treaty of Versailles - as some of the most innovative endeavours of the 20th century resulted from the treaty as well. The United Nations had a far superior international participation and successful peacekeeping force. In comparison, at its peak, the League of Nation had a total of 58 member states, while the present-day United Nations has 193. United Nations peacekeepers hail from various member countries and work solely in the service of the UN. The first United Nations headquarters was constructed in New York City, and today the UN also has headquarters in Geneva, Vienna and Nairobi, all of these designations being declared international territory, controlled by international law.
The first United Nations Peacekeeping force was mobilized to help settle the conflict arising from the Suez Canal crisis in Egypt. The Suez crisis arose in 1956 when Egyptian President Nasser nationalized the canal. Britain, France and Israel invaded Egypt to extinguish Egyptian nationalism and to regain access to the canal for international trade. The United Nations Assembly ordered a ceasefire, and it was the idea of Canadian Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson to send UN peacekeepers to Egypt to monitor the ceasefire agreement. This first peacekeeping mission would be the model for various other peacekeeping missions in the 20th century, including during the Yugoslavian wars. Today the UN Peacekeeping force boasts around 100,000 soldiers.
Canadian self determination continued through service with the United Nations and peacekeeping missions. Canada distinguished itself culturally from Britain having their foreign policy and defense cooperation aligning more with that of the United States. During the Suez Crisis, Canadian peacekeepers was criticized for the use British uniforms and using the term “Royal” to identify Canadian Regiments deployed in Egypt. As a result, to distinguish themselves from the British troops, Canadians were issued the now famous blue beret to reinforce Canada’s role in the UN as a neutral state. The reinforcement of distinction from the Commonwealth and the desire not to be seen as an extension of Britain’s foreign policy established Canada’s new role on the world stage in conflict resolution.
Self Determination within the league of nations and the UN did not only affect Canada. For the first time some minorities were given the choice of which nation they would like to be apart of. Many of the new countries created from the Treaty had substantial ethnic minorities that wished to join neighbouring states with culture they were more akin to. The League of Nations sponsored many of these minorities with Minority Treaties, settling disputes between the countries they fell under and those where their ethnicity dominated. Unfortunately, when the power and authority began dwindling from the League in the 1930’s, most of the support for these minority groups was lost. The United Nations picked up the slack having similar geopolitical consequences follow the Second World War as they did the First [World War].
Other organizations that were formed from the Treaty of Versailles included the International Labour Organization which still exists today and has worked to advance social justice and promoting international labour standards. Over the last 100 years, June 28th, 1919 - June 28th, 2019, we have come a long way in achieving World peace. Organizations created by the United Nations in the years following the Second World War include the World Health Organization that has worked in preventing epidemics and specializing in public health measures. UNICEF, the United Nations Children Fund was originally established to provide food, shelter and healthcare to women and children affected by the war. Another organization to come out of the Second World War is the World Bank established as an international financial institution with the goal to reduce poverty. The first country to receive a World Bank loan was France, who received $250 million USD to help rebuild after the war. However, after the Marshall Plan3 began moving money into Europe, the World Bank shifted its interests to non-European countries. They worked to reduce poverty in developing countries and in 1960 established the International Development Agency to continue on the path of poverty reduction through equitability and sustainability.
The UN fosters communication between member states. Collective compromise and communication between nations has helped to settle much international strife. This has been done through the International Court of Justice established to settle international legal disputes. It has offered legal advice in budding conflicts all over the World including the Asylum Case4 between Columbia and Peru, several aerial incidents or other confrontations between the United States and the Soviet Union and North Sea Continental Shelf Cases.5 The UN’s main goal however was to prevent a WW3. It has been over 70 years and so far, they have done that.
Conclusion
The most famous and influential international treaty ever signed, the Treaty of Versailles was pivotal for History in the 20th century. Aimed to formally end the First World War and prevent another war from ensuing, the highly punitive terms of the treaty were the direct cause of a Second World War only 20 years later. Organizations formed from the Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty 100 years ago have had both successes and failures in their goal to unite nations around the World and achieve World peace. We live in a very different World in 2019, but there is still much we can learn from June 28th, 1919 to ensure the unprecedented suffering and events of the 20th century do not repeat themselves in the 21st.
If you would like to find out more about The Treaty of Versailles and its long-term effects over the 20th Century, visit us at the 8th Hussars Museum, located in the historic Sussex train station.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Footnotes
1 Statute of Westminster - a British law clarifying the powers of Canadian Parliament as well as those of other commonwealth dominions. It granted these countries legal independence in all areas they desired, and others could remain subordinate to Britain.
2 Article 231 – “The Guilt Clause” – the opening article of the reparations section of the treaty that required Germany to accept full responsibility for starting the war.
3 Marshall Plan - an American initiative to provide economic assistance to European countries struggling after the war.
4 Asylum Case - a case involving the Columbian ambassador to Peru that survived a short-lived Peruvian civil war and was granted asylum by the Columbian government but was denied safe transport out of Peru by the Peruvian government.
5 North Sea Continental Shelf Cases - a series of disputes between Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands regarding areas rich in oil and gas on the continental shelf of the North Sea.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
References:
Oziah, Ken, Treaty of Versailles: The Road to Hitler, American Military University.
Dowbiggin, Ian, Why the treaty of Versailles went so wrong, Telegraph Journal, May, 2019.
McLauchlan, C. G., Causes leading up to the present war, 1939-1940.
The National Archives Learning Centre, The Great War 1914-18, The Treaty of Versailles. http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/greatwar/g5/cs2/background.htm
World Digital Library https://www.wdl.org/en/item/11598/
Collision of Empires: Italy's Invasion of Ethiopia and its International Impact
Bailey, Thomas A., Woodrow Wilson & the Great Betrayal.
Heard, Andrew, Canadian Independence, 1990. https://www.sfu.ca/~aheard/324/Independence.html
Self-determination & new states, History of Western Civilization II, OER Services, ch.27 The Interwar Period.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/self-determination-and-new-states/